Disease and conditions 

Subcutaneous crepitation is a critical clinical sign indicating air or gas in soft tissues due to trauma, infection, or iatrogenic causes, requiring urgent evaluation. Its presence mandates airway monitoring and prompt identification of underlying life-threatening conditions like pneumothorax, esophageal rupture, or gas gangrene.

Bony crepitation is a clinically important sign indicating bone or joint pathology, such as fractures or arthritis, and should prompt thorough assessment to guide diagnosis and treatment. It must be elicited carefully to avoid worsening injuries, especially in acute trauma cases.

Crackles are abnormal breath sounds signaling underlying pulmonary or cardiovascular pathology. Accurate interpretation through clinical assessment, differential diagnosis, and targeted management is crucial for guiding appropriate interventions and improving patient outcomes.

This article provides clinical guidelines on managing productive cough, emphasizing airway clearance, fluid intake, humidification, and appropriate use of medications. It also includes special considerations for pediatric and geriatric patients, highlighting risks and tailored care approaches.

Nonreproductive cough is a dry cough not related to reproductive system causes, often resulting from respiratory, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, or environmental conditions. Common examples include asthma, pneumonia, GERD, and inhalation injuries.

Barking cough, often caused by croup syndrome, is a harsh, seal-like cough resulting from upper airway inflammation in children. It requires prompt assessment and management to prevent airway obstruction and respiratory distress.

Costovertebral angle (CVA) tenderness is a key clinical sign indicating renal capsular distention, often from infection, obstruction, or vascular compromise. Accurate elicitation and interpretation help in early diagnosis of serious renal conditions such as pyelonephritis or renal calculi.

An absent corneal reflex indicates dysfunction in either the trigeminal (CN V) or facial nerve (CN VII), often due to lesions in the brainstem or peripheral neuropathies. It may signal serious neurological conditions and requires immediate evaluation and ocular protection.

Constipation can arise from various medical conditions including anorectal, metabolic, neurological, and gastrointestinal disorders, each with unique clinical features. It may also result from medications, diagnostic tests, surgery, or radiation, requiring thorough evaluation for effective management.

Confusion is a state of disorganized thinking or inappropriate behavior that may be sudden or gradual, reversible or permanent. It can result from medical, neurological, metabolic, infectious, or drug-related causes and requires thorough evaluation and patient safety measures.

Cogwheel rigidity is a ratchety resistance to passive movement, typically seen in Parkinson’s disease due to the combination of rigidity and tremor. It aids in diagnosis and is best elicited at the wrist during physical examination.

Clubbing is a painless, bilateral enlargement of the soft tissue around the nail beds, commonly indicating chronic pulmonary or cyanotic cardiovascular diseases. It reflects underlying tissue hypoxia and vascular changes and warrants investigation for serious systemic conditions.

Chvostek’s sign, an abnormal facial muscle twitch upon tapping the facial nerve, is an early clinical sign of hypocalcemia. It helps assess calcium imbalance, particularly in patients with parathyroid issues or undergoing neck surgery.

Chills are sudden feelings of coldness often accompanied by shivering, usually caused by a rapid rise in body temperature during fever or infection. They are the body’s natural response to generate heat and fight off illness.

Cheyne-Stokes respirations are a cyclic breathing pattern of gradually increasing then decreasing breaths followed by apnea, often caused by heart failure or neurologic impairment. Management focuses on treating the underlying condition and supportive respiratory care.

Chest pain is a potentially life-threatening symptom caused by various cardiac, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, or psychological conditions. Accurate diagnosis requires thorough history-taking, physical examination, and prompt emergency interventions in severe cases.

Asymmetrical chest expansion occurs when one side of the chest moves less than the other during breathing, often indicating underlying pathology. Causes include airway obstruction, chest trauma, pleural diseases, neuromuscular disorders, spinal deformities, and surgical interventions.

Cat’s cry syndrome (Cri-du-chat) is a rare chromosomal disorder marked by a high-pitched, kitten-like cry, microcephaly, and profound developmental delay. It is caused by a deletion on the short arm of chromosome 5 and may lead to multiple congenital anomalies.

Carpopedal spasm is a painful involuntary muscle contraction of the hands and feet, often indicating hypocalcemia or alkalosis and requiring urgent evaluation. Prompt management is essential to prevent complications such as laryngospasm, seizures, and cardiac arrest.

Increased capillary refill time indicates impaired peripheral perfusion and can result from conditions such as arterial occlusion, aortic aneurysm, cardiac tamponade, or Raynaud’s disease. It may also arise from external factors like vasoconstrictive drugs, trauma, or improper medical devices.

Butterfly rash can result from autoimmune conditions like systemic and discoid lupus erythematosus, as well as infections, dermatologic disorders, and drug reactions. Its appearance and associated symptoms vary, often involving facial erythema, scaling, and systemic signs depending on the underlying cause.

Bruits are abnormal vascular sounds caused by turbulent blood flow from conditions like arterial stenosis, aneurysms, or arteriovenous fistulas. They often signal underlying diseases such as atherosclerosis, anemia, or thyrotoxicosis, accompanied by specific clinical symptoms depending on the affected vessel.

Brudzinski’s sign, seen as hip and knee flexion during neck flexion, is a key indicator of meningeal irritation, often pointing to serious conditions like meningitis or subarachnoid hemorrhage. It requires prompt neurological assessment and emergency management to monitor for increased intracranial pressure and prevent deterioration.

Fruity breath odor is a key sign of ketoacidosis, caused by excess acetone from fat breakdown due to lack of usable glucose. It signals a medical emergency requiring prompt insulin, fluid, and electrolyte treatment to prevent coma or death.

Breast dimpling is a clinical sign often indicating underlying breast malignancy or fibrosis, caused by tumor invasion or inflammatory processes tethering the skin. Prompt evaluation with imaging and biopsy is essential for accurate diagnosis and management.

Is defined as fewer than 10 breaths per minute, is a potentially life-threatening condition often caused by drug overdose, neurologic, or metabolic disorders. Immediate assessment and intervention—including airway support, monitoring, and treatment of underlying causes—are critical to prevent apnea and respiratory arrest.

Is defined as a heart rate under 60 beats/min, may be physiological or pathologic, often requiring evaluation for cardiac, metabolic, or drug-related causes. When symptomatic—manifesting as syncope, chest pain, or dyspnea—it necessitates urgent assessment and potentially life-saving interventions.

Abdominal distention is a clinical sign resulting from increased intra-abdominal pressure due to gas, fluid, masses, or organ dysfunction, potentially indicating life-threatening conditions such as bowel obstruction or peritonitis. Timely assessment, including physical examination, imaging, and laboratory testing, is critical for diagnosis and management in clinical practice.

An abdominal mass is a localized swelling that may indicate serious underlying pathology, including neoplasms, organomegaly, or vascular anomalies like an aortic aneurysm. Prompt evaluation through thorough clinical examination and appropriate imaging is essential for accurate diagnosis and management.

Abdominal pain, originating from various abdominal and pelvic structures, can indicate benign or life-threatening conditions requiring thorough history, physical examination, and timely interventions. Prompt assessment and appropriate diagnostics are essential to guide management and improve patient outcomes.

Abdominal rigidity is a critical clinical sign indicating possible life-threatening intra-abdominal conditions like peritonitis or ruptured aneurysm. Prompt recognition, differentiation from voluntary guarding, and emergency intervention are essential for patient survival.

Accessory muscle use refers to the engagement of extra muscles like the sternocleidomastoid and intercostals during labored breathing. It signals respiratory distress and is a key clinical sign in patients with compromised breathing.

Agitation can result from various medical conditions, including withdrawal syndromes, neurological disorders, hypoxemia, and hypersensitivity reactions. Severity ranges from mild restlessness to life-threatening states with systemic symptoms.

Medical causes of amenorrhea include hormonal imbalances, structural anomalies, tumors, and systemic diseases affecting the ovaries, pituitary, adrenal glands, or uterus. Symptoms often accompany amenorrhea, such as hirsutism, obesity, visual disturbances, or congenital abnormalities, depending on the underlying condition.

Amnesia is a condition characterized by partial or complete memory loss, which may be temporary or permanent. It can result from various medical, neurological, or psychological causes, affecting either past memories (retrograde) or the ability to form new ones (anterograde).

This article provides a comprehensive overview of analgesia, covering its classification, neuroanatomy, physiological basis, and clinical management, particularly in spinal cord injury. It emphasizes evidence-based approaches for pain assessment and treatment in clinical practice.

Anhidrosis is the absence or reduction of sweating, which can be localized or generalized and may result from neurologic, skin disorders, or certain drugs. Severe cases, like heatstroke, require urgent cooling and supportive care to prevent life-threatening complications.

Anorexia refers to a lack or loss of appetite, often resulting from various physical or psychological conditions. It can lead to serious health issues like malnutrition, weakness, and delayed healing if not properly addressed.

Anuria is defined as urine output less than 100 mL in 24 hours, commonly caused by urinary tract obstruction or acute renal failure. Prompt diagnosis and intervention—such as catheterization and addressing underlying causes—are critical to prevent severe complications like uremia.

Anxiety is a common psychiatric symptom characterized by feelings of uneasiness or dread, ranging from mild discomfort to severe, life-threatening conditions. It can result from physical illness, psychological disorders, or external factors, and requires careful evaluation to identify underlying causes and provide appropriate management.