Disease and conditions 

Bradykinesia is a slowness of voluntary movements and speech due to reduced dopaminergic activity, commonly seen in Parkinson’s disease and other extrapyramidal or cerebellar disorders. It may also result from certain medications and is often accompanied by tremor and rigidity.

Bozzolo’s sign is a visible pulsation of arteries in the nasal mucosa, occasionally indicating a thoracic aortic aneurysm. Detection is done by examining the nostrils with a speculum and light.

Bonnet’s sign is a pain produced on adduction of the thigh, suggesting sciatic nerve irritation. It is commonly used in the clinical assessment of sciatica.

Blocking is a sudden interruption of speech or thought, typically occurring mid-sentence, where the patient cannot explain the pause; commonly observed in schizophrenia but may occasionally occur in normal individuals.

Blepharoclonus is an excessive, involuntary blinking of the eyes, commonly associated with extrapyramidal disorders affecting the basal ganglia or cerebellum.

Bitot’s spots are triangular white or foamy gray deposits on the conjunctiva at the lateral corneal margin, typically associated with vitamin A deficiency.

Bezold’s sign is a swelling and tenderness of the mastoid region due to an abscess beneath the sternocleidomastoid muscle, indicative of mastoiditis.

Bárány’s sign (Caloric test): Irrigation of the ear with warm water causes rotary nystagmus toward the irrigated side, while cold water causes nystagmus away; absence of this response indicates labyrinthine dysfunction.

Bell’s sign (Bell’s phenomenon) is a reflexive upward and outward deviation of the eyes when attempting to close the eyelid, observed on the affected side in Bell’s palsy, indicating a supranuclear defect.

Beevor’s sign is an upward movement of the umbilicus when the patient contracts the abdominal muscles, indicating paralysis of the lower rectus abdominis muscles, typically associated with lesions around T10.

Beau’s lines is a transverse depressions across the fingernails that may appear after severe illness, systemic stress, malnutrition, nail trauma, or cardiac events such as coronary artery occlusion.

Barré’s sign is a delayed pupillary (iris) contraction observed in patients with mental deterioration, reflecting possible central nervous system involvement.

Barré’s pyramidal sign: A clinical sign indicating pyramidal tract or prefrontal brain dysfunction, detected when a patient in the prone position with knees flexed 90° is unable to hold the lower legs still.

Barlow’s sign is a clinical test for congenital hip dislocation in infants, elicited by flexing the hips and knees to 90°, applying posterior and lateral pressure on the femur, and detecting a “click” as the femoral head dislocates posteriorly.

Ballet’s sign is a paralysis of the external ocular muscles causing loss of voluntary eye movement, while reflexive eye movements and pupillary light reflexes remain intact; indicative of thyrotoxicosis.

Ballance’s sign is a fixed dullness in the left upper abdominal quadrant on percussion or palpation, suggestive of subcapsular or extracapsular splenic hematoma after splenic rupture.

Autistic behavior is a self-centered, unresponsive behavior with repetitive, nonmeaningful actions and speech, sometimes seen in children or adults with schizophrenia.

Attention span decrease is a reduced ability to concentrate on a task while ignoring distractions, often caused by anxiety, emotional stress, or central nervous system dysfunction.

Atrophy is a reduction in size or wasting of tissue or an organ due to decreased cell size or number, which may be physiologic (e.g., brain or ovary) or pathologic (e.g., neurologic or endocrine disorders).

Asynergy is a loss of coordinated function among muscles or organs that normally act together, typically resulting from basal ganglia or cerebellar disorders.

Asthenocoria (Arroyo’s sign): Abnormally slow dilation or constriction of the pupils in response to light, sometimes accompanied by photophobia, commonly associated with adrenal insufficiency.

Arthralgia is a pain in one or more joints, which may be benign or associated with disorders such as arthritis, autoimmune disease, or systemic lupus erythematosus.

Argyll Robertson pupil is a small, irregular pupil that reacts to near accommodation but not (or poorly) to light, classically linked to neurosyphilis, especially chronic syphilitic meningitis.

Aphonia ia a complete loss of the ability to produce speech sounds, commonly caused by laryngeal disorders, vocal cord overuse, nerve injury, muscle spasm, or functional (psychogenic) disturbances.

Apathy is a loss or suppression of emotion, motivation, or interest in personal and environmental activities, often linked to neurologic, psychiatric, or chronic systemic disorders and sometimes an early sign of serious disease.

Anisocoria is unequal pupil size (0.5–2 mm) is normal in ~2% of people, but fixed dilation/constriction or abnormal light response suggests neurologic or ocular disease.

Anesthesia is an absence of cutaneous sensation, including touch, temperature, and pain, which may be partial, total, unilateral, or bilateral; detected by assessing patient response to touch with eyes closed.

Amoss’ sign is a maneuver in which a patient uses their hands for support when rising from supine to sitting to avoid spinal pain, indicating possible vertebral or spinal pathology. It is often observed in conditions causing back pain or restricted spinal mobility.

Ambivalence is simultaneous presence of opposing feelings, such as love and hate, toward a person, object, or idea, causing indecision or internal conflict. Severe ambivalence is often observed in schizophrenia and can impair social and decision-making abilities.

Allis’ sign detects hip pathology: in adults, deep sinking of the fascia lata between the iliac crest and greater trochanter suggests a femoral neck fracture; in infants, unequal knee heights when hips and knees are flexed indicate possible hip dislocation.

Agraphia is the inability to express thoughts in writing, with subtypes including aphasic (spelling/grammar errors), constructional (misordering of words), and apraxic (inability to form letters despite intact motor function). It most commonly results from lesions due to stroke.

Agnosia is the inability to recognize or interpret sensory stimuli despite intact primary sensation, caused by lesions in sensory association areas of the parietal cortex. Subtypes include visual, auditory, tactile (astereognosis), gustatory, olfactory (anosmia), autotopagnosia, and anosognosia, commonly following stroke.

Adipsia is the abnormal absence of thirst despite fluid deficit or hyperosmolar states, often caused by hypothalamic injury, tumor, or systemic disorders. Early recognition is critical to prevent severe dehydration and hypernatremia, and management involves guided hydration and treatment of the underlying cause.

Abadie’s sign is spasm of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle of the upper eyelid, often seen in exophthalmic goiter associated with Graves’ disease. It is supportive but not definitive for diagnosis and should be interpreted alongside other ocular and systemic features of hyperthyroidism.

Aaron’s sign is precordial or epigastric pain elicited by gentle, steadily increasing pressure over McBurney’s point, and a positive sign suggests acute appendicitis. It is used as part of the physical examination to support the diagnosis of appendiceal inflammation.

Wheezing is a high-pitched, musical breath sound caused by air flowing through narrowed airways, often heard during expiration, and may indicate airway obstruction from bronchospasm, edema, secretions, foreign bodies, or extrinsic compression. Evaluation includes history, physical examination, auscultation, vital signs, and relevant diagnostics, with management focusing on airway support, bronchodilators, oxygen therapy, and treatment of underlying causes.

Excessive weight loss occurs when caloric intake is insufficient, absorption is impaired, or metabolic demands are elevated, and may result from endocrine, neoplastic, gastrointestinal, psychiatric, infectious, or neurologic disorders. Evaluation involves detailed history, physical examination, laboratory and radiologic tests, and assessment of nutritional, psychological, and lifestyle factors.

Excessive weight gain occurs when caloric intake exceeds energy needs or when fluid retention develops, and may result from endocrine disorders, medications, emotional factors, or reduced activity. Evaluation involves detailed history, physical examination, anthropometric measurements, and assessment of underlying medical, psychological, and lifestyle causes.

Vulvar lesions are lumps, nodules, papules, vesicles, or ulcers caused by infections, benign or malignant tumors, dystrophies, or dermatoses, often presenting with pruritus, pain, dysuria, or dyspareunia. Accurate history, physical examination, and laboratory testing are essential for diagnosis, management, and counseling.

Vomiting is the forceful expulsion of gastric contents, often preceded by nausea, and may result from gastrointestinal, metabolic, infectious, neurologic, cardiac, or drug-related causes. Careful assessment of onset, frequency, character of vomitus, associated symptoms, and underlying disorders is essential for diagnosis and management.