Kidney and urological disorders

Prostate Cancer

The disease has a variable clinical course, ranging from slow-growing tumours that may remain clinically insignificant to aggressive cancers with early metastatic spread. The axial skeleton (spine, pelvis, and ribs) is the most common site of distant metastasis.

Dialysis

Dialysis is a life-sustaining kidney replacement therapy used in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) or acute kidney injury (AKI) when the kidneys are no longer able to adequately remove waste products, excess fluid, and electrolytes or maintain acid-base balance.

Chronic Kidney Disease–Associated Anaemia

Anaemia is a common complication of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and becomes increasingly prevalent as kidney function declines. It primarily results from reduced production of erythropoietin by the diseased kidneys but may also be aggravated by iron deficiency, chronic inflammation, blood loss, nutritional deficiencies, shortened red blood cell survival, and dialysis-related losses.

Chronic Kidney Disease–Associated Metabolic Acidosis

Metabolic acidosis is common in CKD stages 3–5 and worsens bone disease, muscle wasting and kidney decline. Treat when serum bicarbonate falls below 22 mmol/L with oral sodium bicarbonate titrated to 23–29 mmol/L, with dietary advice and nephrology review.