Musculoskeletal disorders 

Physiological bowing (genu varum) and physiological knocked knees (genu valgum) are common developmental variations of lower limb alignment in children. These conditions are part of normal skeletal growth and usually resolve spontaneously without treatment. Physiological genu varum is most prominent from birth to approximately 18–24 months of age, after which the legs gradually straighten.

Rickets is a childhood metabolic bone disease characterized by defective mineralization of the growing bone and growth plate before closure of the epiphyses. It is most commonly caused by vitamin D deficiency, although calcium deficiency, phosphate deficiency, chronic kidney disease, liver disease, and inherited disorders of vitamin D or phosphate metabolism may also cause rickets.

Musculoskeletal tumours are abnormal growths arising from bone, cartilage, skeletal muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or peripheral nerves. They may be benign or malignant, with malignant tumours classified as primary bone or soft tissue sarcomas or secondary (metastatic) tumours. Metastatic bone disease is far more common than primary bone malignancy, with the most frequent primary cancers originating from the breast, prostate, lung, kidney, and thyroid.

Talipes equinovarus (TEV), commonly known as congenital clubfoot, is one of the most common congenital musculoskeletal deformities, occurring in approximately 1 in every 1,000 live births. It is a complex three-dimensional deformity of the foot characterized by cavus, forefoot adduction, hindfoot varus, and ankle equinus (CAVE). The deformity is usually idiopathic but may also occur as part of neuromuscular or syndromic disorders.

Osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures (VCFs) are among the most common fragility fractures in older adults, particularly postmenopausal women and elderly men with osteoporosis. They occur when weakened vertebral bodies collapse under normal physiological loads or after minimal trauma. Although osteoporosis is the leading cause, vertebral compression fractures may also result from metastatic malignancy, multiple myeloma, infection, or prolonged corticosteroid therapy.